Negative language transfer in EFL writing across proficiency levels among senior middle school students in China

Writing serves as a fundamental medium for expressing ideas and assessing learners’ linguistic competence. In the context of China’s English education system, writing occupies a critical position in language assessments. Nonetheless, many senior middle school students fail to meet expected standards in this domain, with negative transfer from the first language (L1) identified as a principal contributing factor. This study aims to examine the extent and nature of L1 transfer in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing among Chinese senior middle school students across varying proficiency levels and stages of the writing process. It further investigates English teachers’ awareness of L1-induced errors in student writing. Anchored in transfer theory, contrastive analysis, and error analysis, this research employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating writing tasks, student questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews with students and teachers from Jigang Senior Middle School in Shandong Province, China. A total of 60 student writing samples were analysed using qualitative content analysis and quantitative frequency analysis; 362 student questionnaires were processed via descriptive and inferential statistics to explore correlations between proficiency, writing stage, and L1 reliance; and semi-structured interviews with 30 students and 6 English teachers were analysed through thematic analysis to extract key perceptions and pedagogical practices. The findings indicated that L1 transfer diminished as students’ English proficiency increased. Learners at lower proficiency levels frequently committed grammatical and semantic errors, particularly in verb tense, voice, and word choice, due to heavier reliance on their native language, while higher-proficiency learners exhibited fewer L1-induced errors in lexis, syntax, and discourse. Moreover, the influence of L1 transfer varied across writing stages, with the pre-writing stage showing the highest degree of dependence. Across all proficiency levels, students demonstrated substantial reliance on their L1 during this stage, particularly in tasks such as topic analysis, idea generation, and content organisation. With respect to teacher awareness, although teachers at different stages can recognise L1-related errors, novice teachers, advanced beginner teachers and even competent teachers demonstrated a lack of effective pedagogical interventions. Proficient and expert teachers were able to employ certain remedial strategies, though these tended to lack systematic implementation. Based on these findings, specifically the proficiency-related variation in L1 transfer patterns and stage-dependent L1 reliance, combined with gaps in teachers’ systematic error intervention strategies, the SPOT-WRITE model (Stage and Proficiency Oriented Model for Reducing Negative L1 Transfer in EFL Writing Instruction) was developed to integrate stage-specific instructional design and proficiency-targeted error mitigation strategies. By providing actionable frameworks for tailored instruction and stage-specific error mitigation, this study offers practical implications for enhancing EFL writing pedagogy in Chinese senior middle schools, alongside empirical insights for curriculum refinement and teacher training.